Social responses to volcanic eruptions: A review of key concepts
Section snippets
Key concepts in understanding social reponses to disasters
Given the multitude of terms and approaches currently applied to the understanding of how human societies react to environmental challenges (e.g., Adger, 2006), it is useful to begin with a general conceptual framework for understanding social responses to volcanic eruptions among pre-industrial societies. All disasters are created by a complex, entangled mix of environmental and socio-cultural factors (Oliver-Smith, 1996; Oliver-Smith and Hoffman, 2002; Shimoyama, 2002). Although the concrete,
Vulnerability
Social scientists have developed the concept of ‘vulnerability,’ defined as ‘susceptibility to harm’ (Gallopin, 2006, 295; cf. Adger, 2006; Torry, 1979), because it focuses attention on the social groups that have been affected, rather than simply the material damage that had previously been the major subject of disaster assessments (e.g., Riede, 2014; 2015a; Blaikie et al., 1994; Wisner et al., 2004; Oliver-Smith and Hoffman, 2002; Hoffman and Oliver-Smith, 1999; Oliver-Smith, 1996). Studies
Recovery and resilience
An important insight that archaeology brings to disaster studies is the simple observation that the effect of a volcanic event continues over the entire period during which societies recover -- when they might remain stable, continue but change, or collapse -- as well as the continuing influences that the experiences may have on descendant communities (e.g., Torrence, 2016; Riede, 2015a, 230; Sheets, 2012; McAnany and Yoffee, 2010; Cashman and Cronin, 2008; Chester and Duncan, 2007; Cronin and
Innovation and change
Until recently, many discussions of how volcanic events have impacted on societies tended toward sensationalism and emphasized vulnerability and ultimately collapse (Grattan, 2006; Grattan and Torrence, 2007). Scholars commonly view cultural changes after the volcanic impact as representing a failure of the previous social system to persist. An alternative scenario is presented in Plunket and Uruñuela's (2006) study of the effects of the VEI 6 eruption of Popocatépetl in Mexico. This event
Adaptation
By adaptation, I refer explicitly to changes in society that occur after an event and that increase future resilience by actively dampening or effectively mitigating the effects of subsequent volcanic disasters. Clearly, not all cultural change stimulated by volcanic disasters makes a direct contributions to future resilience, but some adaptations may provide significant benefits to societies who experience relatively frequent major perturbations. The Oetelaar and Beaudoin (2016; Oetelaar, 2015
Societal complexity
One of the pioneers of disaster studies, Gilbert White (1974) first proposed that societal organisation was a fundamental element in the way that groups responded to disasters (cf. Riede, 2014, 337). White argued that pre-industrial societies were less resilient than industrial groups because losses could not be mitigated so effectively. Sheets (1999, 2007; 2008, 2012; Sheets et al., 1991; cf. Shimoyama, 2002) has examined the relationships between societal complexity and resilience through a
Subsistence strategies and disasters
As an example of how human societies respond to volcanic disasters, I consider impacts and responses concerning subsistence strategies. The wide range of potential volcanic hazards and their catastrophic effects, e.g., lavas, tephras, pyroclastic flows, lahars, gas emissions, and subsequent mobility of volcanic products are described in many textbooks. Direct and indirect impacts on human health have been usefully reviewed by Weinstein and Patel (1997) Cook and Weinstein (2005). Blong's (1984,
Final thoughts
In conclusion, the concepts of vulnerability, resilience and adaptation are useful to archaeology for structuring discussions about social responses to volcanic disasters because they highlight the importance of an appropriately scaled analysis that incorporates a thorough understanding of prior history as well as the social processes that operated both during and after the event. From a perspective of understanding changes in food procurement, it would be ideal to obtain a long
Funding
This research was funded by grants from the Australian Research Council, Australian Museum, Pacific Biology Foundation, Australian and Pacific Foundation, Earthwatch Institute, and New Britain Palm Oil Ltd.
Acknowledgements
I am very grateful to the organisers and sponsors of the 2016 international expert meeting ‘Distal impacts of major volcanic eruptions on pre-industrial societies in the Mediterranean’ for sponsorship to attend the conference, to all the participants for stimulating discussions, and John Grattan for some ideas and references used here. Special thanks to Martijn van Leusen for encouragement and editorial assistance. Useful suggestions from two reviewers have helped improve the paper.
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